The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 19

Summary

Francium is the rarest and most delicate element on the periodic table. Astatine is the least found natural element with only one ounce of existence. Scientists found it because sometimes the radioactive decays into this element These elements are so fast to disintegrate, and very radioactive and harmful if ever tried to get more atoms together. This is because their nuclei is so big. Then the other elements, were expected to last very little due to this. It was a shocking discovery when they noticed that element 114 could last a little longer that some elements before it. Elements 112 and 116 benefitted from this element and gained stability as well. Scientists desired to find more beyond this “island of stability”. Francium is yet more abundant because when radioactive elements around uranium decay, they become this stranded element. Some scientists believe that they can make nuclei stable if it becomes heavier, so they intend to create elements with larger atomic number than the ones already discovered.

Einstein added much knowledge and insight to quantum mechanics and other scientific records. He tried to solve the “Theory of Everything”, failed, but in the world of science a fail is not always so, and can become something more complementing maybe another idea. Seaborg and his colleagues reorganized the periodic table and had to accommodate transition metals. The element actinium was the element to give the periodic table its shape, the one that pulled the elements to the bottom of the periodic table. There is more to the periodic table. There are antiprotons with a negative charge which like electrons and protons pair up with positrons, aka anti electrons. There are so many particles that are being discovered and could potentially open new doors to new scientific knowledge, but it all started, with the periodic table of elements.

Reflection

This is sadly the last chapter, but the interesting material and humor of the author is not quite over. It is explained how Hydrogen and Helium are the two components of the universe, but elaborates explaining that this is an error, and even mocks how many kilos of “error” are on earth and the most scarcest element is only an ounce. I find it interesting how einstein tried to figure out the theory of everything. Physicists, is nice to know, believe in the possible time travel. I would tell this to any of my friends and explain to them that there is a loophole that that allows particles called tachyons to move very fast and even move backward. It is odd to ever imagine that there was another shape for the great fort castle that we see in our science, but mostly chemistry classes. Yet who knows maybe like the books says, this is not even the correct form, but one day, as we progress will get to it or even have an anti periodic table.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 18

Summary

The way many things are measured, specially in science, is of most importance. The Kilogram is an actual physical object that even has calibrations and copies. It loses weight based on atoms in touch. Scientists have tried to permanently prevent it from losing more of itself, but has not been possible. Atomic clocks are based on cesium since it has one electron in the outer shell and its atoms are thick. In one second, it spins more than 9,000 million times. So cesium is used as the standard measurement of time replacing the astronomical time.

There are certain numbers called constants that will never change in a chemical or scientific equation. This facilitates the work of the scientists. Alpha particles have a larger size, and thanks to this, we exist and the big bang occurred. These particles were measured to be 1/136 but now are close to 1/137 point something. This particles produce life. Oklo is the only natural fission reactor known to exist. Nuclear scientists discovered that it was powered by uranium, algae, and water. This fission natural reactor was very similar to a contemporary nuclear reactor.

Enrico Fermi, though with dubious reputation was a genius and wanted asked how was it that the earth inhabited many living organisms but there was no sign of such thing in other places of the universe. He arose curiosity in other individuals. Frank Drake even incorporated astrology as a level of science, this due to the Drake equation.Many scientists studying this field now question whether life in other parts of the universe has the same or similar science to the once we know. Necessary conditions have to be met in order for there to be life. But out of billions of strs there is probably other forms of life that indicate that we are not alone.

Reflection

The way this chapter started, was a great life-connection since many students have had that type of teacher at some point. This is a great metaphor referring to the strict policies and restrictions about measurement in the world of science. It is shocking how the Kilogram is not only a measurement, but a physical thing. The days sometimes are shorter because of the drag that waves cause to earth, and so every third year there are leap seconds to compensate for that. Scientists love for constants is similar as the mathematician's love for variables, and that is true because there is always the desire to solve for something in math, and in science that is already given in many instances. As a math geek, I am so shocked and admire Enrico Fermi’s rapidity to create and solve equations from scratch. The alien response awaited for many that the author incorporates to give it a sense of humor was very funny since it is true, we form part of what seems an endless universe where there should be more life aside from us, maybe with more, or some with less technology from us, and we have not heard nor seen these beings.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 17

Summary

Donald Glaser, at a bar, thinking about particles due to a glass of beer. He noticed the bubbles on his drink and after much thinking he realized that he could distinguish particle traits based on bubbles that formed at or near boiling points. He first tried his experiments with beer, but of course, were a total failure, then, followed a suggestion of a colleague of using Hydrogen, which made him one of the Men of the Year and made him win a Nobel Prize.

Calcium is capable of forming foaming bubbles as well. Calcium is a very strong element used in many things for protection. Bubbles at some point were not very used by scientists. This was so until Ernest Rutherford and Lord Kelvin came along. Rutherford, expanding on Curie’s work, accelerated the process of getting radioactive material by enclosing the active sample of decay and drawing bubbles of it. These new bubbles are now known as the element Radon.

Suddenly, an element under certain conditions could turn into another element. While making an experiment and putting radon into a container which was inside of a container, after getting to the second container and putting electrical current, it glowed because of the excited Helium molecules. This experiment and discovery was used to find the age of earth by measuring the rate of lost heat and “extrapolating” to when rocks were molten. John Archibald Wheeler, then began to theorize the origin of eath, of life. He began to hypothesize that existence originated from foam, and it did answer many questions, but the origin, it did not explain. Kelvin’s experiments on bubbles, inspired many military science during the first world war. The bubbles that attacked other weapons in war. When studying the bioluminescence of bubbles, scientist Putterman and other scientists discovered that the lack of reactivity of noble gases was the key to sonoluminescence once again going back to fusion. Bubbles have been a great passage way for many scientific discoveries.

Reflection

The chapter begins with some upsetting but brilliant discovery. Upsetting, because it was over a glass of beer. Brilliant because it led to his discovery of how he could distinguish particle traits. The bubbles are now also used for biology. The combination and reaction of slightly basic Calcium and slightly acidic rain, formed what we now know as caves. A funny part about the chapter was when they mentioned how Rutherford would “damn” his equipment and used not very proper language when his equipment would not work. I found it amazing at the process and understanding of how to estimate the age of earth, which based on the experiment came out to be two billion years old. The way this chapter gives importance to bubbles is amazing. One as a kid would play with them, and now one learns that they are far more than just bubbles, and that they could bring up more information of scientific knowledge ever imagined.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 16

Summary

This chapter begins with the drastic measures scientists have to take in order to make discoveries. Some explorers were intrigued about learning about the south pole. After Robert Falcon Scott’s failure to venture into the South Pole, he described the place as “awful”. Wanting to go back, but storms prevented them from doing so. Their fuel was running low, and soon after, he and his tripulation died. Tin was the element to blame in this horrible incident since at cold temperatures a white rust would form, weakening and destroying tin. It shifts from a weak crystal to a strong crystal.

When matter shifts from one state to the other, many dramatic reactions can occur. There are more states of matter other than gas, liquid and solid such as plasma or degenerate matter. This variety is due to the micro arrangements of particles. Neil Bartlett created the first Noble Gas compound in which at very compacted forms, they can eventually connect with other elements. Argon was the one element compounded into a solid. The three main states of matter connect nicely with each other, but when the element is heated and creates plasma, then the particles begin to disintegrate. When particles are cooled down to extreme temperatures, then they combine. In superconductors the electrons and the nuclei are closer, “lock”.

Though many thought that light behaved as a wave, Einstein proved and supported the fact that light came in particles called photons. Some lasers are very powerful, even producing more power than a whole country. This is due to the movement of the electrons. Physicists, like Bohr, using quantum mechanics derived the uncertainty principle to determine a particle’s position. Satyendra Nath Bose, a physicist, noticed that by a mathematical error he had committed, the predictions about particles were right. Einstein took a look at this, agreed and released two papers on how the photons will sometimes get on top of each other and become indistinguishable, and how in very extreme low temperatures, there could be another state of matter. The uncertainty of where particles are found is very large, sometimes at the point in which two close atoms at low temperatures can create a huge atom.

Reflection

What makes me like chemistry, as mentioned in this chapter, is the fact that there is always going to be something to discover about the world. Other discoveries like the geographical about the South Pole, was a very funny part of the book as it mentions how an individual determined and expecting triumph failed as a Norwegian man won his triumph. Due to the states of matter explained in this chapter, I now know the state of matter of Jell-O. It can be considered a very sluggish liquid, and a vary soft solid. There is an ice called”Alien Ice” that does not melt until a very high temperature. Me being an ice cream fanatic wish there was an ice cream that hardly melts. A connection that I noticed in this chapter is how when maintained at nice cool temperatures, the superconductor can flow for a long time. This explains why many technological artifacts have fans integrated; to keep them cool. It was interesting to read how some elements can mess up with light, sometimes even making it slower, like Sodium. I was shocked to learn that light is not the fastest thing in the universe, only the fastest in a vacuum. This chapter maybe without knowing goes back to one of the past chapters where a mistake sometimes can be very helpful, specially when Bose made a wrong calculation with correct results.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 15

Summary

Mad science has been popular on books and movies, but this chapter explains how sometimes this scientific madness can be beneficial. William Crookes was a writer based on science publicizing “Chemical News”. He got accepted to the World-Class science club, but his fall due to the death of his brother Philip nearly got him out. Crooks became very spiritualistic and even invented a device to maybe detect his brother. He became very obsessed with the paranormal sciences. The people from the Royal Society reproached Crooks saying that he had let himself be surprised with cheap tricks and even though Crooks tried to prove them wrong, his attempts were in vain. Apparently Crooks had been studying Selenium, an element that in large doses becomes toxic. Some argued that he was intoxicated by an element he had discovered, thallium. Pathologists have encountered chemistry on their findings as well. AN example would be the shark tooth covered in manganese.

Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann intended to do plenty of experiments that would form part of cold fusion, but became a dead end causing a scientific error, but they kept on going, and arose the curiosity of more scientists. A scientist by the name of Wilhelm Rontgen tried to prove himself wrong about the discovery of invisible rays, but could not do so. He did experiments and his colleague Per-Ingvar Branemark with a Crookes tube covering it black with just a strip of foil so that the rays would go through and after a few fails and arrangements he discovered that he could suddenly see through things including the bones of his own hand. He thought he was going mad, but was actually helping with the discovery of X-rays.

Reflection

The first thing that caught my eye as I began to read this chapter, was the mention of one of my idols: Sherlock Holmes. It was used to demonstrate the level at which spiritualism had reached England, but the mention of the wise and observant Detective Holmes and his author is paradoxical since these books are mostly based on logic. I found it sad that Crooks work was used to prove he was crazy when he only tried to prove that he had found and discovered a paranormal world. The origin for the word lunatic it very amazing. Since Crooks had been intoxicated by Selenium which comes from the Greek word that means moon “selene”, and in Latin this words is “luna” leading to the word that we now know as lunatic. When the author mentions how many people deep down inside wish that the Megalodons are still alive, I can totally connect, specially like the Jurassic Park fans.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 14

Summary

Money has been both an impulse for the discovering of new part of science, and also a burden since only the rich could afford to do the experiments and research. Many elements that form part or are similar to other elements, have very significant names and even the noble gases have names referring to their inactivity. While in school, the author mentions a German person who was incharge of the supply room and after one semester began to talk to him and learned about Goethe. To which his book was read for literature and not for scientific accuracy.

Goethe had to chose a person to fill in a chair in chemistry at a university and chose Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner who had failed at many industries but had gained experience and great chemical topics to talk to Goethe. Dobereiner based his greatest contribution in Strontium. Strontium was a chemical mixture of calcium and barium. Strontium became the first element correctly placed on the periodic table. He made Goethe look like a genius only for supporting him, when he invented the first portable lighter.

Typewriters were invented and succeeded due to Mark Twain’s interest on these modern writing materials. Robert Lowell’s relationship with Lithium, turned up to be devastating for the individual. Lowell was a bright writer, but he had mood depressions. Lithium only helps slow or stop the progress of bipolarity cases. Lithium indeed calmed Lowell down making him “healthier”, but his poetical art became less poetical and less musical as it once was.

Reflection

The chapter begins with a funny allusion to the origin of some of the element names. It is nice to see the way they are connected. I find it shocking that chemistry or better yet science, took a while to get mathematized. I, personally, love and enjoy mathematics and seeing that this subject had not formed part of science at some point, is sad, because math can be seen everywhere specially in the sciences of chemistry and physics. The author then begins to talk about his experiences in college and how he was scared of the German who was at the basement in charge of the connection cables. It is always entertaining how authors can sometimes tell anecdotes. Like Goethe’s example of chemical adultery. It was weird to know that strontium was one of the first lights to the periodic table, one would think that it was hydrogen, but it is all assembled by the atomic number rather than chronology of finding it. It is quite odd for me to see great figures of literature in a book that talks about science. Mark twain became part of this by the scientific discovery and economic triumph of typewriters.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 13

Summary

The world of the periodic table has not only politics and world history involved, but also has a long relationship with money. Sometimes, people have been fooled about thinking they have a certain precious metal, when they have another cheaper metal. King midas many think was responsible for discovering the black lead, which is graphite, white lead which is poisonous. This was not true. Others even believe that he discovered tin which is not true, only that it was found in his land. The combination of bronze and brass created to gold touch of the king.

The book follows up with the catastrophic gold rushes that costed the lives of many people. Three lucky guys that found gold created the desire for this precious metal. Many towns began to be created due to this boom in material. Fool’s gold distracted many, but most kept on digging for more easy money. Gold cannot be found in rock sediments since it has a hard time bonding with elements. The only element capable of bonding with gold is tellurium. The coinage was once of pure silver called electrum, but later, made it of cheaper material. Soon, and even in contemporary times, there is paper money which is cheaper than paying for metal ores and mines. Europium atoms create lower energy light that is used in common European currency. Aluminum at some point was more expensive than Gold, but after a while of chemists playing and experimenting on it, made it available to the public. An American chemist then revolutionized this metal’s production which was cheap and made it cheap.

Reflection

The chapter begins with the incorporation of the mythical and legendary king Midas who transformed everything into gold. The book puts an end to the myth and explains how the golden touch many thought that Midas had, was only a combination of bronze and brass. Then the chapter follows with more myth talking about the mystical and legendary city of gold but compares it to the nasty gold rushes. It is funny to know how many of the rocks that campers used were pure tons of gold and did not even notice. They kept on digging and had to fortune at their feet. It is sad but fortunate to know that some people like Primo Levi who were incarcerated in the concentration camps used their intellect just like the knowledge of Cerium to light up like matches get his enough food portions to survive until the Soviet Union liberated them.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 12

Summary:

The periodic table can be a source for some of the complications of the most complex human structure: the brain. Marie Sklodowska was tutored by her father since women were prohibited to study. She demonstrated determination to science. She married her soul sister Pierre Curie forming with this, the most perfect scientific couple. SHe focused on examining Uranium, its chemistry and its radioactivity. They both simplified the process of measuring an element’s radioactivity and won a Nobel prize for it. After this, they discovered from the Uranium waste and much research, two new elements that were even more radioactive than Uranium. This led to another Nobel Prize. They named one Polonium (based on Poland). Her husband Pierre had been killed by a carriage and could not share this last Prize. Institution of chemistry she was negated the entrance for being a woman. Her daughter was also a chemist and made the discovery of turning elements to radioactive atoms.

The Polonium that Curie’s daughter had inhaled killed her, but actually helped other people, because this made possible the creation of cheap medical tools. Gyorgy Hevesy discovered how by using lead he could trace and follow up to the element in one’s body. He was successful and began to track molecules inside veins and organs. After his discovery, in that time physicists became intrigued with the way that atoms were formed and created quantum mechanics. Bohr made the discovery of Hafnium making this a great chemical discovery since it dug deeper into the atomic structure. Meitner and Hahn two scientists that focused on nuclear sciences and shared the credit. Hahn later discovered that in Curie’s daughter’s experiment it was lanthanum and barium, and Meitner found out that it was nuclear fission. Although it was mostly Meitner's contributions, nut Hahn got the credit. But justice was made and Maitner got her own element: element 109 Meitnerium.

Reflection:

The book gets into a deeper part of life and claims that the elements are part of a social chemistry that explains human characteristics. This chapter focuses in connecting geographical political aspects of the social life of humans, and how chemistry had or formed part of them. Marie Curie was a great chemist who I admire for giving her part in science and even obtaining two Nobel Prize Awards. She knew what she was doing. It is surprising how her daughter followed her steps and made great discoveries as well. Sadly and ironically the element that her mother had discovered exploded in her lab leading her to have pneumonia and even killing her just like her mother. I like the subtle puns used by the author like the experiment Hevesy tried to make about the meat of the meat lady and is integrated to the proper food that he had to consume in order to make some experiments with his urine. It is nice to see that even in the world of chemistry there is justice just like how Meitner got her own element and Hahn only a Nobel Prize.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 11

Summary:

Sometimes, for more good that we think an element can be, it can turn out to not be so and instead can cause chaos. But it can also be the other way around. Nitrogen for example can cause someone to collapse and even die by preventing the proper intake and processing of Oxygen. A swedish doctor, Per-Ingvar Branemark, when studying the growth of bone marrow through a titanium window, after having done his observations, noticed how he could no longer take this window out, and this awoke the area of prosthetics. Branemark had made a great discovery. Other people had tried other metals and had failed, but they never thought of using Titanium. In a few experiments trying to see the body’s reaction to this element, the outcomes were positive and had not failed.

Beryllium awakes the taste buds just as if it were sugar, but too much, comes to be very toxic. It can shred one’s lungs. Taste buds are very helpful in helping the body determine harmful substance. When we detect sour, the taste buds let Hydrogen in and our tongues feel the electricity of charged particles. If any element is incorporated into a human system, there is no guarantee of the effects it would have. Iodine found in salt can prevent health defect like goiter.

Reflection:

In this chapter the first thing that shocked me, was the fact that NASA lost lives for a chemical negligence leaving Oxygen in a spacecraft. Oxygen burns faster. Poor astronauts. It is sad and funny how the author of the book personifies the elements mentioning that the way Nitrogen kills is “kind”. It was saad to read how even to today’s date a little piece of coral is used to seal the titanium. Corals should not be used like this since they are very delicate. The science behind why mint relaxes and helps the mouth is very interesting since it awakes the tongue receptors that awake a cold feeling. It is fun to see history incorporated in this book specially including famous and influential figures like Gandhi and his hatred for salt or like the book mentions “iodine”. This iodine apparently has a lot of health benefits preventing health defects.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 10

Summary:

Elements that are thought to be the most toxic can become live saving. Silver was an element that has been commonly used for a long time. It is fashionable and does not get infected easily. Both Copper and silver have antiseptic qualities.If any harmful bacteria get to copper, these bacteria absorb the copper and the copper disrupts their system making them die. Vanadium has similar effects to those of copper and is the best spermicide for males. Gadolinium is an element which many unpaired electrons and magnetic field make a great part of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), and help detect tumors. Also, if intense radiation is used, this can end the tumors and asides, it has proteins that repair DNA. If the use of Galinium is not proper, then there might be side effects with the body functioning.

Louis Pasteur noticed the handedness of chemistry beginning with the tartaric acid from wineries noticing under a magnifying glass the twists. Pasteur’s greatest milestone was finding a vaccine against rabies. German Domagk had made a similar experiment and discovery. After his daughter had stabbed herself with a needle, she got a bad infection and almost got her arm amputated for it. After many cautions and experiments he could no longer see his daughter like that so with a red die he discovered the first antibacterial drug. Prontosil worked because of its violation to the octet rule since it forms a dozenet. Another drug that was thought to be miraculous was thalidomide caused a lot of very bad birth defects causing the popularity of medicine like these to fall. William Knowles used rhodium to create a catalyst to make two dimensional molecules to three dimensional. The catalyst speeded chemical reactions, and these reactions had effects that could better Parkinson’s disease. Knowles won a Nobel Prize in the year 2001.

Reflection:

I enjoy the historical incorporations of the author. The one in which it mentions the man that had his nose bridge cut off in a sword match and got it replaced by either silver and/or copper. It is funny and also interesting information that sticks to the reader’s mind. Vanadium can raise and lower the glucose levels in the blood, and some think that this element is the cure for diabetes. If silver is ingested at high portions, the skin might turn blue, a man did this trying to cure his syphilis, but it cured him not. We are all left handed because the proteins in our body is so. Prontosil first failed in the market since doctors did not believe it could do much, but thanks to Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr., doctors and people now saw that it was very helpful. It did not become helpful when Domagk received the Nobel prize and was hurt from it, and when the people seeked out more even incorporating antifreeze which killed hundreds of people.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 9

Summary

Some cells and proteins in a living creature are very delicate under certain conditions. Some chemicals cause a lot of harm to living organisms and sometimes the life-giving minerals take away lives. Cadmium being the lightest chemical was found in mines and caused harm to miners. Now it is very important for the coating of batteries. Cadmium caused the “ouch-ouch” disease and all due to its dumping on the streams which led to the rice fields. Noboru Hagino studying the disease found that rice turned out to be a Cadmium sponge. The health administrator of Japan accepted Hagino’s overwhelming claims and assisted those infected victims.

Mercury sitting below Cadmium is a neurotoxin, and next to it follow Thallium, Lead, and Polonium, with the same ability to poison. Thallium is considered the deadliest element in the periodic table. It destroys the body inside out. This poison can last for a very long time. Element eighty-two, Bismuth is pinkish, creates a blue flame, and emits yellow fumes. It is only of the rare elements that expands when they freeze. It can create hopper crystals has helped scientists understand the deeper structure of radioactive matter to see how long elements can last. It is not even that harmful since it is sometimes medicinal. Polonium is a poison of the nuclear age that makes one’s hair fall out. Radon follows and even though it is an odorless unreactive noble gas, it replaces air and when it gets to the lungs it discharges lethal particles that in most cases cause lung cancer.

David Hahn was a person who became intrigued with chemistry and who would do experiments and research to stop the reliability on oil. Faking his identity, he learned about fusion, fission and radioactive decay.  He did a lot of radioactive experiments that have poisoned him. He wanted to do great things, but never got the chance to get to a proper and controlled laboratory.

Reflection

I found it terrifying how Cadmium took so many victims causing a great disaster. It is very funny how in the Godzilla films, they used this element to kill Godzilla.  I found it shocking how if Potassium and Sodium were in their pure form, they would make our body explode. It is sad how many people use these elements for bad rather than good, like Graham Frederick Young that poisoned his family and seventy more people, killing three, but prolonging the suffering of the rest. It is scary to learn that scientists are trying to figure out when will matter will disintegrate, maybe thinking of doom day from a chemical point of view. Pepto-Bismol is made of Bismuth, that would explain the pink color. The experiments of Hahn were very dangerous but his purpose to mean right was funny because of the outcomes just as the orange skin. He in my opinion was a very cool person who pursued his dreams, but did not did it correctly and the outcomes were radiation. His attempts, experiments and even the ways he attained certain materials were very humorous in my personal opinion.

The Disappearing Spoon Ch. 8

Summary

Emilio Segre made one of the most important elemental discoveries. Together with Linus Pauling, they both transformed the periodic table and its chemistry. Pauling tried to get to the University of California Berkeley  by sending the letter to Gilbert Lewis, but the letter was lost and the University regretted not having read that important letter. Segre, as a refugee, asked to join the Berkeley Lab Radiation, and was accepted, but with a lower wage. After a few years they overcame these problems, and became two of the greatest unknown scientists ever heard. But they became infamous for making two of the biggest mistakes. Mistakes are not always wrong, and some have even pushed science forward. The mistakes they made, were due to extremely complicated experiments on explaining the behavior of atoms.

Many elements, but element forty-three the most, have been discovered for the first time, plenty of times.These “first times” were due to the discovery of an impure form of an element. Ogawa tried to prove his discovery of element 43, but instead, he made the discovery of element seventy-five, Rhenium, this was not known until 2004. In 1937, Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier taking advantage of new work in nuclear physics and instead of looking for the element itself, decided to create it. American Ernest Lawrence created an atom smasher. Segre asked Lawrence if he could add some Molybdenum scraps to this machine, Segre turned out to be right and on those strips, He and Perrier found traces of the so much seeked element 43. Segre and Perrier named the element Technetium which is greek for the word “artificial”, this was done because of technetium was the first man-made element. Enrico Fermi accidentally and without even noticing, introduced the uranium fission. Fermi has wrongly thought to have discovered element ninety-three. Two German scientists proved him wrong and it was a total chaos because he had already won a Nobel Prize. Women were the closest to get to discover fission, and Lise Meitner, was the one who actually discovered it. Segre trying to find element ninety-three and trying to find it the same way he did technetium, the rare earths he found were as he thought, a complete failure. Edwin McMillan felt that this was not right, and he found the the rare earths that Segre had found were different from the rest; he found the first “forbidden element”, Neptune.

Pauling used quantum mechanics to understand chemical bonds between atoms, their strength, length, and angles. He was the one who discovered why the snowflakes have the hexagonal shapes. He was also a great at physical chemistry and discovered the reason of illnesses such as the sickle cell anemia. Pauling became interested in DNA and made conclusions about it that he believed were right, but did not feel right. Students in Cambridge decided to study this subject and based on Pauling’s study, knew they were on the right path. Watson and Crick gathered information about other scientists and knew how to interpret it and combine it correctly. A man suggested them about the pairing of the nucleic acids A, C, G and T. These fitted correctly into their theories. Pauling having ignored the theory of pairing felt the humiliation when these students figured out the mystery of DNA. Owen Chamberlain discovered the antiproton which have negative charge, travel backwards, will annihilate any “real” matter, and is the mirror image of a proton.

Reflection

This chapter was very entertaining and ironic to what happened to these two brilliant individuals. They seem to have let themselves be guided by arrogance and ambition rather than the scientific curiosity and its delicacy that teaches scientists about the world. I found it surprising how women were involved in the discovery of fission and that is a great step for the women to their integration to the scientific world. A part that I found very stressful was the fact that both Stern and Pauling, but specially Pauling, were told many times to be careful, and/or many other clues that could have enlarged their understanding on the subject, but they ignored it instead of studying it, and even though they were brilliant minds, they did not get the credit that could have been theirs. I  had learned about the fission, but I never thought that women were the discoverers of this important discovery. I also learned that it was Pauling the one that figured out about the reason of the shape of the snowflakes. I had learned about the process, but I did not know who had discovered.